LESSON THREE: NAPOLEON, THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA, THE HUNDRED DAYS, THE WAR OF 1812

 

The Beau Monde Regency Academe

 

THE BATTLE THAT RESHAPED EUROPE:

BEFORE DURING AND AFTER THE BRITISH VICTORY AT WATERLOO

 

Lesson Three:  Napoleon’s  First Abdication, The  Congress of Vienna, Napoleon’s Hundred Days, the War of 1812 

 I. 1813-April 1814  Napoleon regroups

 Napoleon, in Russia, heard reports from Paris of an attempted coup, after rumors spread that the Emperor had died. Accompanied by a small force, Napoleon left Moscow on December 5, 1812, leaving most of his army to retreat west on foot through the snow and freezing temperatures. Again, as in Egypt and Spain, he left his army behind for the greater glory of – France?  Or Napoleon? He returned to Paris December 18 and immediately set about assembling a new army with which to continue the war. He had not been defeated in battle in Russia, but Russia had defeated him. Hundreds of thousands had perished, brought down by disease, starvation, and in battles.  Not only Moscow but a wide swath of Russia lay in waste.

Ignoring the human suffering hardships his campaigns brought to every level of society, Napoleon thought only of regaining the glory he sought. Did he do it for France and the French people as he claimed? Or to fulfill his own personal ambitions?  These are questions scholars and casual historians have been considering for two centuries.

He rebuilt an army of about 300,000 from conscripts within France and in his satellites, recalled many troops from Spain (thus easing the job of the Anglo-Portuguese armies a little), and put his generals to work polishing the raw troops.

The armies of Prussia, led by General Blucher and others, had moved south and west, as had the armies of Russia led by General and accompanied and sometimes led by Tsar Alexander I. 

After several months of quiet in the winter of 1813, the French army, in true Napoleonic style, attacked into the former Confederation of the Rhine, winning several battles against Prussian and Russian armies at Lutzen and Bautzen in May. Napoleon was hamstrung by his lack of a strong cavalry to pursue retreating enemy forces. Many horses had died in the Russian campaign and there were few replacements available.

In June, the combatants signed a truce, which lasted until August, during which the Coalition partners tried to negotiate with Napoleon to end the wars. He was obstinately dedicated to regaining his power and prestige in Europe. The Congress of Prague failed to accomplish anything except to convince Austria to join the Sixth Coalition and impress upon all the members that Napoleon would not accept peace on reasonable terms unless he was defeated in battle decisively. 

Even the news of Wellington’s victory in Spain at Vittoria (fought June 12, 1813) during which King Joseph narrowly escaped capture did not convince the French emperor he should give in. He still had several hundred thousand troops, and although the cavalry was weak and the troops raw and unreliable, he chose to fight on. On August 26 and 27, the French drove back the combined allied armies in the Battle of Dresden. But only a few days later the French lost at Kulm, Bohemia, where both sides suffered staggering losses.

 The Battle of Leipzig, aka the Battle of Nations, started on October 16,1813, and lasted three days, said to be the bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic Wars.  Austrian troops led by Prince Schwartzenberg, the Russians led by Tsar Alexander, the Prussians led by Marshal Blucher, and the Swedes led by Count Bernadotte, totaled about 380,000.  The French had about 225,000 and lost at least 40-45,000 before being forced to retreat. But the coalition was not a cohesive force led by a strong general. Instead it was a web of rivalries and egos competing for the leading role.

 Tsar Alexander (1777-1825), who led the Russian Army in some battles, could not be restrained. He and the compliant Prussian King, Frederick William III (1770-1840), who deferred to the Tsar in all things, were determined to push on to Paris. 

 On March 31, Tsar Alexander led a triumphal procession into Paris. Talleyrand, who had managed to stay in the capital and direct the French response to the defeat, urgently called the Senate together to endorse a provisional government with Talleyrand at its head.

 II.  The First Abdication

 Napoleon had withdrawn to the palace at Fontainebleau where, learning of the French Senate's act deposing him, he abdicated in favor of his son on April 4, 1814. His second wife, Marie Louise, was to be regent. The Coalition Allies were not amused.  They insisted on a complete abdication, with Marie Louise and her son to be sent out of France, as well as Napoleon himself.

In early April, Wellington’s armies were in southern France and defeated Marshal Soult at the Battle of Toulouse, actually fought after Napoleon had already surrendered.

On April 11, 1814, Napoleon signed the act of abdication declaring he "...renounces, for himself and his heirs, the thrones of France and Italy, and that there is no personal sacrifice, even that of his life, which he is not ready to do in the interests of France." After saying farewell to the last of his faithful troops, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba off the southern coast of France.

For some months, while the final battles were underway, Coalition diplomats, including British Foreign Minister Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh (1769-1822), Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859), Prussian Foreign Minister Karl August von Hardenberg, and either Russian Foreign Minister Karl Nesselrode or when he chose to participate personally Tsar Alexander I, had been meeting near the battlefields (sometimes having to move quickly to avoid being in the middle of combat). They were faced with a true dilemma.  When Napoleon surrendered, what would be done with France?  Who would head the government? Who would figure out what was to be done with all the territory various nations had conquered?

Various agreements (e.g. The Treaty of Chaumont in March1814) affirmed decisions which would be ratified by the Congress of Vienna of 1814–15. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of Holland to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Paris (May 30, 1814) called for a general congress in Vienna. Its opening was postponed until late September, but few specifics had been worked out by then.

On the 1^st of May, they agreed the brother of the guillotined King Louis XVI would be King of France with the pre-1792 borders restored. Louis XVOII, who had been in England in exile, was grossly fat and crippled by gout. But no one else could come up with an agreeable alternative, for he was indeed the heir to the Bourbon throne, despite his shortcomings.       

Louis XVIII arrived in Paris in early May with his royal family, disappointed all the allies with his clumsy person and his attitude of entitlement rather than gratitude and responsibility.  He appeared to be more concerned with his personal comfort and honors than with his duty to rule the dispirited French.

The Duke of Wellington also arrived in Paris in early May, quietly, and not as a conqueror, quite a contrast to the attitude of the Russians and Prussians.  Many receptions and balls were held in his honor, and he enjoyed the occasions, though he despaired of seeing the serious work completed.

When Napoleon left for his exile on the Mediterranean island of Elba, he had been treated generously.  He retained the title of Emperor and was to receive two million francs a year. His wife Marie-Louise, who had returned to Austria with her son, was made Duchess of Parma with an ample income. The former Empress Josephine and other members of the Bonaparte family were also to receive funds, though in fact none were ever aid.

Napoleon arrived on Elba May 30, 1814, and tried to set up a grand capital for his tiny new empire in Mediterranean Sea, just 12 miles off Italy.  He had an army of 1200 soldiers, a substantial number of horses, his Polish mistress, even his mother and sister, Pauline. He modernized some aspects of Elban life and industry, but he never gave up on his promise to be back in France before the violets bloomed again.

With the exile of Napoleon and the end of the Peninsular War, the London government sent many of the most experienced British troops off to North America to fight in the War of 1812 with the United States.

Meanwhile, the Allies prepared to celebrate their victory in London with elaborate feasts, fireworks and concerts in June 1814. You all know the stories about the rude Russian Grand Duchess and the Tsar meeting with the opposition Whig leaders, convincing Princess Charlotte not to marry her father’s choice of partner for her, and Catherine’s insistence on attending the male-only Corporation of London grand banquet at the Guildhall. Nevertheless, London gloried in the peace. After more than twenty years of war, everyone was ready for a celebration.

Later that summer in London, the Prince Regent put on another series of celebrations of the 100^th anniversary of the arrival of the royal House of Hanover, The Four Georges plus William IV, which is being celebrated again, the tercentennial this year, all over Britain

 III. The Congress of Vienna

 In September 1814, the leaders of the major European nations met in the Congress of Vienna, which formally began in November, though there never was a plenary session held.

Vienna was painted and decorated for the visiting dignitaries. Three hundred carriages and 1400 horses were available for their use.  Emperor Franz William and Viennese nobles spent enormous amounts  to make the capital beautiful and welcoming and to provide continuous entertainment for the guests. In the city of 200,000, another 100,000 were visiting, from Emperors and Princes to maids, pages, footmen, and grooms.  Many were employed as spies especially among the servants.  The police steamed open and read all letters in and out of the city.

The arrangements ere complicated, particularly regarding who stayed in which apartments in the Hofburg, who rented which palaces, and whose parties were scheduled when. Balls, receptions, masquerades, equestrian pageants, winter sleigh rides – there was a constant  schedule of entertainment.

The actual negotiating was carried on privately by the great powers, with additions now and then.  The big four  Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia had already made a secret agreement – often strained but lasting – to stay together in agreeing to the settlements.

The master manipulator, Prince Talleyrand of France, wormed his way into establishing France as a great Power – when he heard the four major powers Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia refer to themselves as allies, he asked allies against whom?  Against France they replied. Against Napoleon, Talleyrand said. But not against the man you put on the throne, King Louis the 18^th. We only used the term allies for the sake of brevity, the allies said.  “Brevity is not to be purchased at the expense of accuracy,” said Talleyrand. Thus did France become the fifth Great Power and Talleyrand, forever clever and wily, was very influential at the Congress.

With the sometime addition of Sweden, Spain, and Portugal to the great powers, negotiations were difficult and complex. In addition there were more than two hundred princelings and dukes from minor territories. Other groups also sent representatives, such as all the Swiss cantons, the Jews of Frankfurt, publishers seeking for copyright laws, and so forth. 

Many sightseers came as well, plus musicians, actors, singers, and myriad others to join in the festivities. Vienna was a hotbed of gossip and rumors, intrigues and shifting affairs.  Dressmakers and tailors were constantly put to work outfitting the participants.

The powers met frequently – Castlereagh, Metternich, Alexander I and Karl Nesselrode. The Prussian chancellor von Hardenberg was nearly deaf, so Wilhelm von Humboldt was there too.

Talleyrand, insisted on Sweden and Spain. A major issues was the future of Poland (and Saxony) about which Alex kept changing his mind. The Russian Tsar was volatile, both tyrannical and super-religious, yet appealing and charming.

Great Britain had no territorial ambitions, but pushed for a balance among the states that would keep it out of continental quarrels. Castlereagh was devoted to the principle that no one nation should dominate Europe:  strong Prussia and Austria provided a good buffer between France and Russia.; In London, Tories and Whigs agreed, the Congress  must include an end to slave trade.  When Castlereagh was needed back in London to led debates in the House of Commons, his replacement as primary British representative to the Congress was the Duke of Wellington. Threats against the Duke had surfaced in Paris and the government was eager to remove him from danger.  The Duke, naturally refused to be driven away for anything other than as substantial new duty.

 

Talleyrand wanted France to be restored to great power status. He opposed Russian expansionist moves, specifically, to make Poland an independent Kingdom, with no special compensation to Russia or Prussia for what they would lose. He wanted Naples restored to the Bourbon family rulers, and no Austrian prince ruling Sardinia. Talleyrand knew his goals would be difficult; basically he, like Castlereagh wanted equilibrium in Europe.

 

Austria wanted to dominate the German states as they had when the Holy Roman Empire still existed. They wanted less power for Prussia and Russia.

 

The Prussians wanted to retain their parts of Poland and to keep Saxony (Saxony had been part of HRE until 1806, afterwards a kingdom, then part of Napoleon’s Confederations of the Rhine; in 1813 after Napoleon lost the Battle of Leipzig, Saxony was taken over by Prussia). The Prussians too wanted to dominate the German states but their leadership weak and usually the Prussian king followed whatever Tsar Alexander wanted. But the Prussian generals also were active and greedy for more territory, the Rhineland for example.

 

Tsar Alexander wanted to retain or acquire all of Poland, which was opposed by all the others who feared Russian expansionist aims.

At beginning of the Congress, all felt they’d be done by Christmas 1814, but that– didn’t quite work out. News came of the December, 1814, peace between Great Britain and the U.S., which strengthened the British position.  Castlereagh was known for his coolness and calm in the face of rages by the Tsar and others.

The negotiations were often tense and near the breaking point, but gradually, the coolest heads prevailed. And when the news arrived in March 1815 that Napoleon had returned to France, the Congress was motivated to complete its work.

The final settlements were agreed and signed from March through May, a network of treaties among the powers and the smaller states.  The Final Act was signed on June 9, just a few days before Waterloo. The final act incorporated previous treaties and declarations (including one on the abolition of the slave trade) and rules for future conferences and diplomatic relations.

The purpose of the Congress was to realign the borders of the nations so altered by the Napoleonic Wars.  Each of the five great powers had its own goals beyond ensuring a lasting peace settlement.

The final results of the Congress of Vienna were many. Above all, it proved that despite their differences, the great powers could act together and compromise in order to reach consensus.  It thus set the example for subsequent attempts to build world peace.

For the most part, the European settlements reached remained in effect for almost 100 years. It is criticized as a regressive settlement that kept the old order in power for far too long in the face of rising nationalism and the aggressive nature of several great nations.  However, it lasted longer than any succeeding peace agreement of its sweeping nature.

IV. Napoleon’s Hundred Days

We all know the familiar story of the escape from Elba in February 1815 while the leaders of the Allies were conferring at the Congress of Vienna about how to undo his conquests, his return to France and his attempts to regain full power by retaking Belgium.

The Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw and formed the Seventh Coalition of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Britain. They began to mobilize their countries for more war. They signed the final settlement on June 9, 1815.  Four armies would oppose Napoleon. The London government offered the Duke of Wellington the choice of leading the army or staying in Vienna.  He chose the former and began to bombard London with his needs for the coming campaign. Many of which thy ignored or overruled, to Wellington’s great chagrin,.  However, as always,  the Duke made the best of it.

 The  7^th Coalition was made up of British forces and those of The Kingdom of the Netherlands, which included parts of today’s Belgium -- which had been under French rule for some time and spoke French as their native language; the Prussians;  and elsewhere in Europe, the Austrians and the Russians.

Napoleon had heard the stories of the incompetence of Louis XVIII’s government asnd the unrest around France.  He quickly regained the loyalty of many of his old comrades, as well as many of his old army.  He put the tailors and armament manufacturers to work on equipping a great new force.

He knew that it would take time for his enemies to mobilize their armies, so he decided to make a bold move from Paris into the Kingdom of the Netherlands and try to take Brussels before any other army could get organized. By spring, Napoleon knew that the Prussians were approaching from the East. And the combined British and Dutch-Belgian troops led by Wellington were quartered in Brussels. Napoleon’s goal was to prevent the two armies from joining together.

After peace had been declared in 1814, many British families moved to Brussels, as well as elsewhere on the continent.  Some did this to save money, others to widen their horizons, previously limited by the French domination of the continent. Among these noble families were the Duke and Duchess of Richmond, with their children. The Duke of Richmond was an officer in the Army and he intended to take part in the great battle; however, Wellington assigned him to lead the militia defending the city.

As head of the allied armies, the Duke of Wellington set up his headquarters in Brussels. In the days before the great battle, the diarist Thomas Creevey met Wellington and asked how he thought the contest would go. Wellington gestured to a British soldier walking nearby. “There,” he said, “It depends all upon that article whether we do the business or not.” This was the ragtag army that Wellington called “infamous.”

 Wellington knew that the time for battle was drawing near.  He would have to move his troops south to meet the French who would cross into Belgium and move north.  Therefore, it was essential that he keep the roads open for his soldiers to march.  So he claimed everything was calm and there was no danger.  He could not risk clogging the roads with refugees and their belongings.

He encouraged the Duchess of Richmond to give her long-planned ball on June 15, 1815. Here were all the glitterati of the Allied powers, the Field Marshalls and the handsome junior officers. The famous Ball was held in a coach maker’s barn on the Rue de Blancheressie, that would be street of the laundry, adjacent to the Richmond’s rented home, decorated lavishly by potted palms and flowers.

When the news arrived during the ball that Napoleon’s forces were only 20 or 30 miles away, everyone knew the battle would begin the next day.  The legend endures that the ball ended in emotional scenes of young ladies and wives kissing their lovers, brothers and husbands good-bye, perhaps forever.

The Duke of Richmond reported on a private conversation with Wellington in which he said, “Napoleon has humbugged me.”  Wellington had not expected the French to move across their border so fast. The first units of the Army moved out before dawn.

V.  The War of 1812 with the United States

We move back in time two years to relate the connections of the European War with the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain.

On June 18, 1812, James Madison, 4th President of the United States of America, signed an Act of Congress declaring war on the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.  The War of 1812 is almost forgotten in both the U.S. and U.K., but to many Canadians, it is an important aspect of their history, ending for the most part, U.S. attempts to control and annex parts of Canada.

Historian Alan Taylor of the University of California-Davis has written a book advancing the theory that the war was "in effect a civil war between related members of a founding nation." In The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies, Taylor looks at the conflict from multiple points of view.  Well worth reading.

Among the inciting incidents that riled Americans was the impressment of American seamen by British ships on the high seas. The British, embroiled in the Napoleonic Wars on the Peninsula and the Continent, claimed the right to stop and board ships to find deserters; sometimes they were also said to have taken naturalized or other Americans to force them to serve in the British Navy. A further aggravation to the growing American merchant fleet weres the Orders in Council, a naval blockade of continental ports, as part of the war with France.

Historians have added additional motivations for declaring war. The U.S. definitely wanted to control more of Canada. Growing controversy among the Congressional War Hawks and the fledgling political parties put President Madison in a bind. The war debate in Congress was heated and extremely partisan, only barely passed by Madison's political allies. Further, U.S. expansion caused continual controversy with Native Americans, who often turned to the British Army for assistance.  We all know the sad story of the fate of the Native Americans, moved farther and farther west away from their ancestral homes.

One wonders why the young, weak, and struggling United States of America would attempt to defeat the strongest maritime nation in the world. The U.S. Constitution had been in effect for less than a quarter of a century; there was no professional army; instead the government had to rely on little-trained state militias. One can hardly avoid the suspicion many leaders in the U.S. relied upon the British being quite thoroughly preoccupied with war against Napoleon.

Another factor was the very slow process of communication in those days.  Upon the declaration of war, the U.S. had not heard that British Prime Minister Perceval had been assassinated on May 11, 1812, and replaced by a government headed by Lord Liverpool (1770-1828, Prime Minister 1812-1827). He had already rescinded the blockade resulting from the  Orders in Council before the formal declaration, but Washington hadn’t received the news.

 The war led to nothing, for all practical purposes, on the part of the U.S. and U.K.  In Canada, it is seen as confirming their unique relationship with both their neighbor to the south and the British. The Treaty of Ghent, signed in December 1814, confirmed the status quo ante bellum, that is, a return to the situation before the war was declared.

After about two years of fighting here and there, by the beginning of 1814, nothing about the War of 1812 had been settled.  When the Peninsular War ended and Napoleon abdicated the first time, many of the battle-hardened British troops were sent to North America. Great Britain planned to finish the War with the United States, which had so far been fought in a variety of places, including the high seas, in Canada, in U.S. territories, the disputed west where many Native Americans allied themselves with the British, and in the Gulf of Mexico. None of the battles, whether skirmishes or out and out facing off of warships, was decisive.

 Once more British troops reached North America, one group landed in Canada and set out to defend and attack from the north. They were effective in limiting most U.S. victories there.  A second group sailed into Chesapeake Bay with the objective of capturing Washington City, the fledgling capital of the young U.S.A., and Baltimore, a busy port and commercial center just about forty miles north of Washington.

 The British troops routed the Americans at the Battle of Bladensburg, just outside Washington, on August 24, 1814. The capital was expecting an invasion, and as the fleeing U. S. militia men fled through the streets, most residents evacuated. The wife of President James Madison, Dolley Payne Madison (1768-1849), in the absence of her husband who was elsewhere conferring with generals, was left alone at the White House. She had been working with the architects to furnish the building, only finished a few years previously.  Though continually urged to flee, Dolley would not leave without the monumental painting of first President, George Washington, by Gilbert Stuart, which had to be removed from its frame and the canvas rolled up for its survival. 

 The irony of the story is that the full-length portrait of Washington was a copy, probably by Stuart himself, of the painting commissioned in 1796 as a gift for the Marquess of Lansdowne, the British Prime Minister (known then as Earl of Shelburne) who helped to conclude the Revolutionary War with the independence of the U.S.A.  In 1814, it hung in Lansdowne House, London. It now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D. C. while the version saved by Mrs. Madison is in the White House.

 During August 24 and 25, the British burned many of Washington's government buildings, including the Capitol and the Treasury. When an arsenal exploded prematurely and killed several dozen of the British troops and a freak thunderstorm broke out bringing high winds and heavy rain, the British troops withdrew. Though many of little Washington City's buildings were in ruins, most of the residences and many businesses were intact. 

Many historians say the British burned Washington in retaliation for the burning and sacking of the Canadian city of York (now Toronto, Ontario) by the Americans in 1813. Accounts can be found showing that many buildings were saved in Washington because the troops were well disciplined and had been ordered by their commanders, Admiral Cockburn and Major General Ross, to spare civilian lives and structures.

In late August, British ships laid siege to Alexandria, a thriving commercial city on the Virginia side of the Potomac River just south of Washington. The city, which had no defenses, surrendered and the British took large stores of flour, tobacco, wine, and sugar from the warehouses.  After several days of occupation, the British withdrew on September 2, 1814, leaving all buildings intact. After the British troops left the immediate Washington vicinity, they turned their attention north. Under the leadership of Naval Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane and Army General Robert Ross, the British forces prepared to take the city of Baltimore, Maryland, a more formidable prize than the half-built capital had been.                                      

On September 13, 1814, British warships began the bombardment of Fort McHenry in the Bay before Baltimore at 6 a.m. The British could not pass Fort McHenry because many vessels had been sunk in the channel to prevent the enemy passage. And the attackers needed to sail close to the lethal American cannons at the Fort. Eventually, after 25 hours of rather inaccurate shooting from both sides, the British ran low on ammunition and withdrew. The British ships received mostly minor damages, one person injured; the fort had four killed, 24 wounded, and damage to several of the buildings.

The day before the naval bombardment, General Robert Ross, who had led the attacks on and burning of Washington, led a group of British soldiers to what became the Battle of North Point. He was severely wounded by American sharpshooters and died as he was being returned to the fleet. After his body was placed in a barrel of Jamaican rum, it was taken to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where he is buried.

The Treat of Ghent was negotiated in that city in Flanders (today’s Belgium) beginning in August, 1814.  With the (first) ending of the Napoleonic Wars, the British no longer needed to stop U.S. ships to search for deserters or to impress seamen. The continental blockade was over for good and would not need to be reinstated. Great Britain no longer needed to send the money on more battles, and the cabinet was ready for peace with its former colony.

The Americans were warned by their diplomats that with the end of hostilities in Europe (which turned out to be temporary of course), regiments of British soldiers would be arriving soon in the United States territory.  Better work for peace before more time was lost and possibly cities as well.

Though the British asked for an Indian buffer state in the northwest between Canada and the US, they dropped this demand after they learned their troops lost the Battle of Plattsburgh in northern New York and were forced back into Canada and that the British fleets had failed to take Baltimore.

At one point, Prime Minister Liverpool suggested that the Duke of Wellington cross the Atlantic to take command, but the Duke believed he was needed in Europe. And he thought the North American war should be ended as soon as possible. Unfortunately his advice did not save the life of his wife’s brother, one of his favorite generals in the Peninsular War, Ned Pakenham.

The Treaty was finally signed on December 24th 1814. It was ratified by both governments by February, 1815, just weeks before Napoleon’s return to France became known. In the ultimate settlement of the War of 1812, neither side achieved its aims. However, the independence of Canada from the U.S. was assured. The War of 1812 was almost forgotten (except by Canadians) until this year’s bicentennial, with some important exceptions. 

The words to the United States National Anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, were written as the battle raged. The lawyer and poet Francis Scott Key watched the British attack on Ft. McHenry from aboard HMS Tonnant where he had been sent to negotiate the exchange of prisoners between the British and American forces. He watched the battle from the decks, and in the morning, saw the stars and stripes flag still flying over the fort.  He reported to the prisoners below deck that the battle had been won by the Americans. As Key returned to Baltimore, he wrote the poem "Defence of Fort M'Henry," and set it to the tune of a popular song by British composer John Stafford Smith, "To Anacreon in Heaven." The poem was published on September 20, 1814, in The Patriot. Legislation naming "The Star Spangled Banner;" as the official national anthem was adopted by Congress in 1931 and signed by President Herbert Hoover.

In addition to the Dolley Madison story and the Star-Spangled Banner, the U.S. acquired a few more contributions to popular history from the War of 1812. During naval battles on Lake Erie, one of the more memorable of American legends was founded when Oliver Hazard Perry (1785-1819), commanding the U.S. ships, won and reported to General William Henry Harrison, "We have met the enemy and they are ours: two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop."

 Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) came into national prominence after his victory in the Battle of New Orleans, a totally unnecessary event that took place after the peace treaty had been signed ending the war. The news had not yet reached the U. S. That battle cost the life of General Edward (Ned) Pakenham, brother-in-law of the Duke of Wellington, and the deaths of hundreds of British and less than a dozen American soldiers. Jackson later became the 7th president of the U.S., serving from 1829-1837.

 

Next week: The Battle of Waterloo Itself

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