Waterloo: Lesson Two

The Beau Monde Regency Academe

 

THE BATTLE THAT RESHAPED EUROPE:

BEFORE DURING AND AFTER THE BRITISH VICTORY AT WATERLOO

 

Lesson Two:  Napoleon’s Europe; Trafalgar; The Peninsular War; The Duke of Wellington

 

I.  Napoleon’s Europe

 

A. 1802-03

 

Once Napoleon was confirmed as First Consul (later as First Consul for Life in 1802) he marched his troops across the Alps to surprise the Austrian and Prussians at Marengo.

Since 1798, French forces had assembled on the English Channel at Boulogne for an invasion of England, preparing to cross the 25 or so miles to the British shore. To do this, they needed a period of time long enough to get the troops, their horses, and their equipment over the water.  Since the English Channel was notorious for its tricky winds and currents, the crossing would be problematic. Because the passage was patrolled by the powerful British Navy, the French would have to lure away the British ships long enough to complete the invasion.

 

The effort was temporarily abandoned during the Peace of Amiens, but troops reassembled in Boulogne again in 1804-05.  These preparations were financed, at least in part, by the Louisiana Purchase.

 

1. Louisiana Purchase

 

Although the doubling of the territory of the United States was controversial at the time, in retrospect it certainly confirms Talleyrand’s comment to the American delegation, “You have a bargain.”  For a mere three or four cents and acre, the U.S. bought a huge slice of land from the Gulf of Mexico stretching up the Mississippi River and as far west as today’s Montana, about 827,000 square miles.

 

Negotiations went on in Paris in 1803 and went into effect in New Orleans in December, 1803. Elsewhere ownership was transferred in a ceremony at St. Louis in March 1804 .  Napoleon was motivated by his need for money, his eagerness to get rid of the problems associated with the Haitian Revolution, and abandonment of plans to create a French empire in North America, and other reasons. The purchase was financed by bonds and by London and Amsterdam banks.

 

 

 

2. Back to the Invasion Plans

 

The invasion scheme was dear to the heart of Napoleon, who longed to put the British in what he considered “their place.”  But it was not to be. The assembled army was watched from the Channel by British warships while the soldiers drilled and as a fleet of landing craft was assembled.

 

In Britain, coastal defenses were constructed, including as string of Martello Towers, small forts that could be manned by a very small garrison and could signal to others in what they hoped would be efficient long distance notice of approaching danger. While residents of towns and villages in potential harm’s way might have been nervous and concerned, the general British populace probably agreed with the satirists who caricatured the French ideas mercilessly.

 

In an attempt to lure the English naval guardians of the Channel away, the combined French and Spanish fleets planned to cross the Atlantic to threaten British colonies in the Caribbean.  French Admiral Villaneuve and his French fleet managed to evade Admiral Nelson’s blockade off the Mediterranean port of Toulon.

 

When Nelson learned of their escape through the Straits of Gibraltar, he sailed off with his fleet to follow the French. The ships crisscrossed the Atlantic, and instead of arriving in Brest to reinforce the French fleet there to challenge British dominance in the Channel, Villaneuve’s ships ended up in Cadiz, Spain, where they joined with others of the formerly Spanish fleet.

 

Meanwhile, in late August 1805, Napoleon lost patience with his invasion scheme and marched most of his men off to fight more battles, ending up as victors in the Battle of Austerlitz (Dec. 2, 1805) in the Austrian Empire (today’s Czech Republic).  (See below). The invasion threat was over.

 

The British kept watch on Cadiz for some time, hoping to engage the French in a battle.  But the French admirals and captains were reluctant to face the superior power and training of the British – until Napoleon ordered them to set sail and fight if necessary.  A clash became inevitable.

 

3. Napoleon’s Army

 

One of Napoleon’s inheritances from former revolutionary governments that served him well was the draft – a conscription law that required all Frenchmen to register at age 20 and be inducted into the army if needed.  He extended this to all the territories he seized reorganized or made into satellite republics.  By the middle of his reign, less than half of the conscripts in the army were French-born.

 

Napoleon was renowned for his battle tactics. He counted on speed, overwhelming force, rapid calculations and deployment of revised maneuvers on the battlefield. But Napoleon was impatient. Along with his daring, came impulsive, rash behavior.  In contemporary terms, we might say he relied on “shock and awe.”

 

He preferred open ground in rural areas for his battles. He began with bombardments of his opponents from his heavy cannons; he was also willing to sacrifice a great many men for his victories.

 

Napoleon was also known for his flexibility in formations, for effective use combinations of infantry, cavalry, and artillery.

He divided his infantry into light infantry, the men under 5’6”  as skirmishers  who preceded the lines; the first lines of men, two or three deep, 5’6” to 5’11” tall,  and the Grenadiers, standing 6 feet or more and wearing tall bearskin hats, behind or in reserve for the coup de grace.  He knew the importance of appearance and the necessity to keep morale high. Wellington said Napoleon’s presence on the field was worth 40,000 men

 

B. War of the Third Coalition

 

After Europe had a year without general warfare during the Peace of Amiens, the British declared war on France again in May, 1803. The state of war between Britain and France would last until 1814. Other European powers sat back and watch for the time being.

 

Napoleon arrested conspirators against him particularly the Duc d’Enghien who was kidnaped from his home in the Electorate of Baden in Germany. The Duc, a prince of the House of Bourbon, the old French monarchy, was tried and executed in March 1804. 

 

1.The French Empire and its Emperor Napoleon

 

Napoleon was declared Emperor in May, 1804, and crowned himself in a lavish ceremony in Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, December 2, 1804. He had invited the Pope to the ceremony ostensibly to do the crowning.  Whether or not the Pope knew in advance that the emperor was going to place the crown on his own head is still not decided.  Was it an insult or just an act of pre-arranged bravado?

 

Why did Napoleon want a hereditary monarchy again, after spending the early part of his life tearing down the ancien regime? Partly to ensure a smooth transition in which his eldest son would inherit, if indeed he had one. Or he could adopt or appoint a successor.

 

In early 1805, Napoleon again crowned himself as King of Italy in Milan, using the legendary Iron Crown of Lombardy.  One of the most fascinating questions in history is how Napoleon justified his shift from republican proponent of liberty, equality, and fraternity to tyrannical emperor.

These actions stunned and appalled most European rulers, leading directly to the formation of the Third Coalition of Sweden, Russia, Austria, and the states of the Holy Roman Empire, with Britain.

 

2. The Battle of Austerlitz

 

The troops Napoleon had marched off from their position waiting to invade Britain came storming into Central Europe in 1805 to face Austria and Russia, who had joined the Third Coalition. The French won several battles against the Austrians and associated armies, culminating in the decisive French victory at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805, and occupation of Vienna by Napoleon’s army. The terms of the subsequent Treaty of Pressburg ended the hostilities with the Third Coalition, excepting Britain.  To mark the victory, Napoleon commissioned the Arc de Triomphe in Paris.

 

Under pressure from Napoleon, sixteen German states were joined into the Confederation of the Rhine, all basically client states of the French Empire.  These sixteen, joined by many others, were formerly states of the Holy Roman Empire, but were now dominated by Napoleon and used as a source of funds, men and supplies for his conquests. The new state abolished feudalism, adopted the Napoleonic Code as their law, and instituted religious toleration.  The grouping lasted from 1806 until Napoleon lost the Battle of Leipzig in 1813.

 

Napoleon also instituted his Continental System, which closed off all his allies and client states from trade with Britain. Besides fostering a huge system of smuggling all over Europe, the result of the Continental System was weaken economies, including that of the French, and to burden even more the client states, which built up their resentment of the French. Perhaps foremost among the areas which suffered were the major French ports of Bordeaux, Marseilles, etc

 

In the meantime, and unaware of the French army’s departure from Boulogne, the British fleet waited off the Cape of Trafalgar for the enemy fleets to leave Cadiz.

            3. The End of the Holy Roman Empire

Francis II (1768-1835), a Hapsburg, ruled the HRE, a greatly weakened shadow of the once-powerful entity first ruled by Charlemagne in the year 800.  As the elected emperor in 1792, Francis II dissolved the HRE after losing the Battle of Austerlitz in 1806. Many of the territories of the HRE were ceded to the French and/or became part of the Confederation of the Rhine. Francis had renamed himself Francis I, Emperor of Austria, in reaction to Napoleon’s assumption of that title in France. 

            4. The Death of Prime Minister Pitt

Pitt the Younger, as he was known to differentiate him from his father Pitt the Elder, (British Prime Minister 1766-68), had the full confidence of George III and efficiently led Parliament in both of his terms. During 1805-096, he worked hard to build the Third Coalition and help finance the armies of Sweden, Russia, and Austria in the struggle against Napoleon. The loss of Austerlitz and the collapse of the Third Coalition was a great disaster for him. Gesturing to a map of Europe, he said, “Roll up that map; it shall not be wanted these ten years.”

Combined with the loss of Admiral Nelson, his health was in serious decline, not aided by his excessive devotion to port. He died at age 46 on January 23, 1806.  There was no strong figure to replace him. Instead, a unity government called the Ministry of All Talents was installed, including even Pitt’s most adamant opponent, Charles James Fox. The coalition lasted about one year before coming apart.

II. The Battle of Trafalgar

 

A. The British Navy

 

The British Naval fleet was composed of several different types if ships.  Ships of the Line meant battle-ready ships designed to sail in a line in battle, the larger, heavier, with the more guns, the better.  The term is the source of the expression “Hold the line.”

 

Ships of the line were divided into first- (100 guns) second- (98) and third-rate (74-80) ships by the number of guns and men they carried. Frigates were somewhat smaller and lighter, with lighter arms, faster to maneuver and used for patrolling and escort.  Many other service vessels sailed away from the fighting ships during battles for their own safety.

 

At Trafalgar, Nelson commanded 27 ships of the line and six other ships.  The combined French and Spanish fleets had 33 ships of the line and seven others, commanded by French Admiral Villaneuve.

 

The crew of the British navy were often made up of impressed, even kidnapped men brought on board by press gangs and forced into service.  Their officers, however, were better trained than the army’s. Constant training was the rule in the navy and discipline was often harsh.  Boys entered the navy at an early age, 11 or 12, and after a few years of service became midshipmen. In a few years, if successful in an exam, they might be promoted to Lieutenant.  The rank of Post Captain was their goal, for this rank met the qualifications for further advancement as well as the possibility of collecting prize money in victory.

 

Naval tactics used by the British varied, but for the most successful commanders, daring deviations from traditional formations were popular.  At Trafalgar, the British ships split the French lines, sailing in two columns to separate the French instead of sailing parallel to their line. Such tactics caused commotion and confusion, which along with the noise and smoke, made for a chaotic fight, exactly what the better-trained and superior-armed British wanted

.

B. Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson (1758 -1805)

 

Nelson had distinguished himself in numerous battles  -- Cape St. Vincent, Santa Cruz de Tenerife (where he lost an arm), the Nile, Copenhagen, and more.

 

Adm. Nelson took a short leave in England after chasing the French across the Atlantic and back.  His private life was a matter of scandal. His affair with Emma, Lady Hamilton, had led to the birth of his daughter Horatia in 1801. Lady Hamilton’s husband, once the British Ambassador to the Kingdom of Naples, had died in 1803. Nelson and Emma lived on an estate called Merton but despite their enduring affection, and his fatalistic attitude toward the coming battle, he failed to make legal arrangements for his daughter and lover. Though caring for Emma was one of his dying wishes, that part of his legacy was glossed over and officially ignored.  Enna, never able to economize, died in poverty inn Calais in 1815.

 

Nelson’s wife, the long-abandoned, Frances (Fanny), Lady Nelson, lived until 1831.

Nelson rejoined the British fleet and assumed command off the Cape of Trafalgar on September 29, 1805.

C. The Trafalgar Campaign

Admiral Villaneuve led his fleet out of the port of Cadiz and set off toward Gibraltar. On October 21, the two opposing fleets began to maneuver for battle in shifting winds.  Nelson raised his signal flags with the famous message: England expects that every man will do his duty.”

Sailing slowly in as light wind, the ships came toward one another, firing and eventually engaging ship to ship. Nelson, who stood on the decks in his full Admiral’s uniform, medals glinting in the light, soon was hit by a bullet from the rigging of a French ship.  He was mortally wounded and he knew it. Carried below decks, he lingered for several hours in great pain.

Gradually more British ships entered the fray and before too long, some French and Spanish ships tried to sail away. The British took 22 ships and lost none, though most of the prizes were later lost in fierce storms that came immediately after the battle.

Nelson died about 4:40 in the afternoon. His body was preserved in a barrel of brandy to be taken back to Britain.  A huge funeral was held, attended by thousands, including the imprisoned Admiral Villaneuve. Nelson’s tomb is in the crypt of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London.

Though the victory at Trafalgar hardly influenced the eventual end of the Third Coalition, it did ensure British domination of the seas for the remaining years of the wars. A cross-channel invasion was never attempted again by Napoleon.

Nelson’s flagship, Victory, is docked in the Historic Portsmouth Harbor and can be visited year-round. Nelson was remained a revered national hero in Britain. Trafalgar Square in London is named for his victory;  Nelson’s Column stands in its center.

III. Wars of the Fourth and Fifth Coalitions

 A. The Fourth Coalition

A renewed Fourth Coalition brought Prussia to the fore in 1806, after the defeat of Austria at Austerlitz and the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia fought felt threatened by this new arrangement on her borders.

But the Prussian army lost a series of battles in October 1806 and Napoleon occupied Berlin on October 25.  The next year, he defeated the Russians in the Battle of Friedland, in June 1807. The Treaties of Tilsit, one each with Russia and Prussia, consolidated Napoleon’s control of Europe.

There were other battles and negotiations, involving a new Duchy of Warsaw, established by Napoleon, and various punishments for Sweden from both France and Russia. 

Autumn of 1807 was probably the acme of Napoleon’s power. But he was not satisfied. Still at war and exasperated by British intransigence, Napoleon turned his eye toward Spain and the capture of Portugal, a traditional ally of the British.

B. The Fifth Coalition

The War of the Fifth Coalition lasted only a few months, from April to October of 1809.

Austria wanted desperately to recoup some of its losses to the French in the last war. Though many of its leaders felt Austria was not ready to take on Napoleon again, Austria moved forward. Initial French victories were followed by Napoleon’s first major defeat, at the Battle of Aspern-Essling, on May 21st. Austria troops led by Archduke Charles, brother of Emperor Frances I, held onto forced a French retreat.

Six weeks later, another bloody battle was fought at Wagram, ending in as nominal French victory when the Austrians agreed to a truce.  In the ensuing Treaty, Austria lost even more territory.

There were other clashes elsewhere in Europe, but none as decisive. In an effort to relieve pressure on the Austrians in Holland, Britain launched the Walcheren Campaign. By the time the troops reached their objective, the War was over, but the British lost many troops to disease, known as the Walcheren fever, which claimed the lives of 4,000 men, more than 10% of the British troops.

Though Napoleon could claim victory again, during this conflict there were revolts and unrest in several of his territories, an unsettling portent of the future for the French Emperor.

C. Napoleon’s New Marriage

Napoleon’s wife Josephine had two children from her first marriage. But since their marriage in 1796, she had not conceived a child with Napoleon. He reluctantly had the marriage annulled in January, 1810. He married Austrian Emperor Francis I’s daughter Marie Louise in March, 1810. A year later, Napoleon was the father of a son, named Napoleon II, King of Rome.

D. French Invasion of Russia

The excuse Napoleon floated for his invasion if Russia was the protection of Poland. More than 600,000 French soldiers -- about half from France itself, the others from client states – made up the Grand Armee.  They marched through western Russia, winning a battle here or there, but generally not confronting the Russian army which drew back as the French advanced.  The Russians burned everything in advance of the French, making their foraging for food impossible.  Napoleon could not believe such a technique, but the farther he went into Russia, the longer and more vulnerable were his lines of supply and communication.

There was a major battle at Borodino in early September, said to be the bloodiest single day in the entire Napoleonic Wars. The French won, but the Russian army got away, and French loses were shockingly high.

We all know the story of Napoleon’s arrival in Moscow in September where the retreating Russians had set everything on fire. Already missing were many soldiers who had succumbed to injuries or disease or simply deserted.

After a month in Moscow, the Grand Armee began the trek westward toward home.  Plagued by disease, snow, freezing temperatures, starvation, marauding bands of Cossacks, the Grand Armee disintegrated.  Napoleon hurriedly abandoned most of his troops and hustled back to France to regroup.  But basically the Napoleonic superiority myth was smashed beyond repair.

Encouraged by the French debacle, Russia and Austria revoked their treaties with France and joined the opposition. The Sixth Coalition was forming.

 

III. The Peninsular War

 

A. The British Army

 

The Army was not as respected an institution as the navy.  Neither the people nor the government liked the idea of as standing army; with no police force, the militias were often called on to keep order, frequently with regrettable results for the populace.  Politicians derided the army as well, for it was expensive and sometimes corrupt.  Officers purchased their commissions and were not necessarily qualified to hold their posts.

 

The Commander-in-Chief of the Army was Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, second son of George III. Though he his military achievements were minimal, he was named to the post in 1795. He attributed his lack of success in battle to poor organization in the army and as C-in-C he was committed to reforms.  His office was in the Horse Guards Building in Whitehall, and thus the headquarters was referred to as Horse Guards. However, the Secretary for War and the Secretary-at-War also had significant and sometimes overlapping responsibilities. The Ordnance Department was entirely separate.  Various government departments controlled parts of the army, according to where they were stationed. It was a confusing situation, anything but efficient.

 

Generally, the soldiers were recruited from the lowest classes, men who for one reason or another, had no better life ahead than the military. Training and drilling varied according to the commanders, as did discipline.  During the period of the Napoleonic Wars, more light infantry units were developed which could serve as skirmishers preceding the ranks of troops advancing in lines or columns. Rifle units used the more accurate weapons, which were far more accurate than the standard army musket.  However, it is important to remember that all these guns had to be reloaded after every shot.  In a close-fought battle, soldiers were often dependent on their bayonets rather than shots.

Unlike the French, the British welcomed innovations in military equipment. Rifles had much greater accuracy than muskets; particularly noteworthy were the achievements of the famous 95^th rifle brigade. Major General Henry Shrapnel (1761 –1842) invented a hollow cannonball filled with shot that exploded into a rain of fragments. Congreve rockets also were used with mixed results at the end of the Peninsular War and in some battles of the War of 1812.  

B. Napoleon in Spain

 

Sorting out the machinations of Napoleon in Spain is difficult. In 1806 and 1807, he made a variety of agreements with Spanish leaders, but honored almost none of them. He wanted to take over Portugal, which was an ally of the British, and tried to use the Spanish armies to assist.  The rulers of Spain were unable to consolidate their power and, though the French had ostensibly entered Spain on their way to attack Portugal, soon the French were in charge in Madrid and rook over the government. Napoleon sent his brother Joseph, King of Naples, to rule Spain.

 

When the French armies invaded, the situation for Spaniards had grown worse. Unlike the nations Napoleon had fought in central Europe, with their abundant farms and thriving cities to plunder, Spain was a poor country at this time, dry and anything but full of provisions for the French army to exploit. Popular revolts led to crushing atrocities s by the French, as pictured so realistically by Spanish artist Goya. But the rebellions continued and remnants of the old Spanish army sometimes fought with the Anglo-British troops against the troops of the puppet regime of King Joseph.

 

C. The Peninsular War 

 

The Battle of Vimeiro (also called Vimiero or Vimera) was the first major conflict of the Peninsular War, part of the greater continent-wide Napoleonic Wars.

 

Up to Napoleon's 1807 invasion of Portugal, Britain's oldest ally, British participation in the European war had involved the navy, diplomacy, and financial contributions, but not many actual soldiers. When the Portuguese needed help, however, the government in London sent troops to oppose the French. They arrived in August 1808 under the leadership of Major General Sir Arthur Wellesley (later named the first Duke of Wellington).

I visited the village of Vimeiro a few years ago. It is still very small, and whitewashed, with its buildings right up against the road.  It is just a short distance from the coastal cliffs overlooking  the Rio Maciera where the British troops landed on the sandy spits at either side of the river's mouth.

 

About 16,000 British troops and 2,000 Portuguese defeated about 19,000 French under General Jean-Andoche Junot (1771-1813) at Vimeiro. Wellesley stationed his troops on ridges between the village and the beach on the night of August 20th. By dawn, they could see the French approaching. In the face of British fire, General Junot's men repeatedly failed to take the heights, though in various skirmishes, there was hard combat, including hand-to-hand fighting in the village. To the north of town, the French fell prey to one of Wellesley's favorite strategies: stationing his troops out of enemy sight behind the crest of a hill, then wiping out the enemy as they came over the top.

By midday, Junot was beaten but two newly-arrived British generals called an end to the firing. Wellesley advocated continuing the rout, driving the enemy out of Portugal all the way to French soil. However, as the battle had progressed, Wellesley's overly cautious superior officers came ashore; first, General Harry Burrard (1755-1813), then General Hew Dalrymple (1750-1830). They overruled Wellesley's plans to chase after the French. Thus, by allowing the French time to regroup and bring in reinforcements, the British lost their advantage. Instead, over Wellesley's objections, Burrard and Dalrymple organized a conference to negotiate with the French at Cintra several days later.

 

The Convention of Cintra was signed August 30, 1808, nine days after the Battle of Vimeiro. It obligated the Royal Navy to carry 26,000 French soldiers to France, with their weapons and whatever spoils they had acquired. There was no restriction against their return to fight again in Portugal. Sir Arthur Wellesley voiced his objections, but, in the end, signed the Convention. The reaction in Britain was dramatic, led by the opposition to the government and their allies in the press. Scathing articles, mocking cartoons and contemptuous speeches condemned the terms of the convention. Wellesley, along with Generals Burrard and Dalrymple, was ordered back to London; Wellesley landed at Plymouth Oct. 4, 1808.

 

The three generals faced a hearing before a Board of Inquiry at Horse Guards, beginning November 15, 1808. After extensive deliberations, the board voted on December 22, 1808, to accept the convention. The generals were officially exonerated, but neither Burrard nor Dalrymple ever saw military action again. Unofficially, all of London knew of Wellesley's reluctance, and most probably knew the story of how his plan to continue the battle and push the French back to Lisbon and out of Portugal forever was thwarted.

 

The conflicts over Cintra were suddenly overwhelmed in March 1809 by the revelation in Parliament that the Commander-in-Chief’s mistress had been selling commissions in the army. All London was ablaze with the story and Cintra was almost forgotten.  The Duke of York had to resign; his mistress Mary Anne Clarke stood accused.  Eventually the Duke was exonerated from direct participation in the scandal but his reputation suffered anyway.  He became C-in-C once more in May 1811, a post he held until his death in 1827.

The command in Portugal was taken over by General Sir John Moore, who moved troops into Spain to assist the Spanish rebels in defeating the French.  However, the Spanish were poorly armed and disorganized.  When confronted by superior French troops deep inside Spain, Moore ordered a rapid retreat through the snowy mountains to the coast where the troops could be rescued by British ships. At Coruna, while waiting to embark, they faced the French army and fought them off. Moore died in the effort, greatly mourned by his troops and the army command. By mid-January, 1809, the British were entirely gone and the French occupied Corunna.  Moore is buried in San Carlos Gardens, a beautiful park in Corunna. His memorial reads, “In Memory of General Sir John Moore who fell at the Battle of Elvina while covering the embarkation of the British troops, 16 January 1809.” 

 

Ironically, Napoleon himself, who had led troops into Spain in 1808 had by this time turned over the command to General Soult and gone back to France.

 

In London early in January, 1809, Parliament met and passed a vote of thanks to Sir Arthur Wellesley and the army which had served under him. Wellesley and 20,000 troops were sent back to the Peninsula, arriving in April 1809. He learned the French had again moved south into Portugal, capturing Oporto.  The British, crossing the Duoro River secretly, recaptured it in May.

 

The war continued in Portugal and Spain for another five years, ending in 1814 with Napoleon's first abdication. British troops, by then, had fought their way through Spain and into southern France.

 

Wellington recaptured all of Portugal from the French, worked with the Spanish rebels, and retreated when necessary to regroup for future successes.  Unlike Napoleon, Wellington often fought defensively and practiced strategic retreat.  For example, after the Anglo-British success at Talavera (approaching Madrid), Wellington retreated back into Portugal. There they built the defensive lines of Torres Vedras, which provided strong protection, stopping a French advance later in the war.

 

By June of 1812, Wellington’s forces moved back into Spain. The Battle of Salamanca on July 22 forced the French to retreat.  But later in the year, Wellington’s troops return to Portugal. 

The next year, the Anglo-Portuguese under Wellington defeat the forces of the puppet king, Joseph Bonaparte, at Vitoria, June 21, 1813. Napoleon had withdrawn many French forces from Spain to reinforce his army after the defeats in Russia.  Thought King Joseph got away, the British captured many miles worth of supply wagons bearing artworks stolen from Spanish palaces begins sent to Paris.  Most analysts consider Vitoria the end of French rule in Spain, leading to the total collapse of Napoleon’s empire. 

D. The Duke of Wellington (1769-1852)

Arthur Wesley, later changed to the earlier spelling Wellesley, was the third son born to the Earl of Mornington and his wife Anne, of the Anglo-Irish Ascendency. After an unhappy few years at Eton, Arthur was seen by his mother as “awkward” and a problem.  She sent him to as French military school where he learned horsemanship and to speak French.

He was commissioned in the British Army and became an ADC to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He became an M. P. in Irish House of Commons.  He fell in love with a popular young lady, Catherine  “Kitty” Pakenham, daughter of an Irish baron, Lord Longford. Her family considered him unworthy and his courtship was rejected.

By September 1793, he purchased a commission as a lieutenant colonel. He saw service in Flanders where “he learned what not to do, always a valuable lesson.”  In 1796, promoted to a full colonel, he sailed to India where he held several commands and was successful in Indian campaigns, winning a number of significant battles.

He returned to England in 1805, and married Kitty the next year.  For nine years they had not been in contact, but he considered himself bound to her; it was never a happy marriage, though two sons were born to the couple. Arthur, now a lieutenant general and a member of the order of Bath, fought in Denmark and accepted command of a British force sent to Portugal in 1808.

In Portugal he earned a number of honors.  He was named Baron Duoro in 1809, and later Viscount Wellington [his eldest brother Richard was already a peer with the title of Marquess Wellesley (1799)]. In1812, Arthur was raised to the rank of Earl, then Marquess of Wellington. The additional title of Marquess of Duoro was added in May, 1814, with the additional title of the 1st Duke of Wellington.

We will resume the Duke’s story later in the course.

 

End lesson two