The
Beau Monde Regency Academe
THE BATTLE THAT RESHAPED EUROPE:
BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER THE BRITISH VICTORY AT
WATERLOO
Lesson One
I.
Setting the Stage for the Napoleonic Wars: 1509-1802 in Great Britain
(Henry VIII to the Peace of Amiens)
A.
The 14s:
Next
year in 2015, we will observe the 200th anniversary of the Battle of
Waterloo on June 18, 1815. This year, 1814, Britain is observing three major
anniversaries: It is one hundred years since the beginning of World War I, two
hundred years since the celebrations in London marking the first victory of the
Coalition and the abdication of Napoleon, and three hundred years since the
arrival of the House of Hanover in Britain, and the beginning of the Georgian
Era.
B. The development of constitutional monarchy
with limited power of the
Sovereign
and control of the purse and the Army by Parliament
Over
the centuries in Britain, governmental power has shifted from the Absolute Monarchy
and the concept of Divine Right of Kings to the representative democracy of
Parliamentary control. Broadening the voting franchise did not occur during the
period we are dealing with. Not until the Great Reform Act of 1832 did voting rights
change to include more men; women (over 30) got the vote in Britain in 1918.
C. A cruise through British history: Henry VIII
to Anne (1509-1714)
For
pictures associated with this section go to
Part
One, Group A
To
begin the story of the lead-up to Waterloo, let’s take a cruise through
history. How did these
German-speaking Electors of little Hanover, part of the duchy of Brunswick in
the Saxony region of north Germany, end up as Kings of mighty Great Britain?
Briefly, we need to
go back to the 16th Century. After the long years of the Wars of the
Roses, Henry VII consolidated power in England. His son, Henry VIII, who
reigned from 1509-1547, set about to bring peace and stability to the country
and emerge from a feudalistic culture, i.e. a world run by nobles whose lands
were worked by peasants (sometimes called serfs) and who provided military
support to kings.
Henry VIII’s need to
provide an heir for his throne led to his break from the Roman Catholic Church
and his establishment of the Anglican Church of England. The conflicts thus
generated in English society over the position of Catholics continued throughout
the reigns of many monarchs.
Henry’s only
legitimate son, Edward, became king in 1547 at his father’s death, but at only
nine years of age, his power was held by a council of regents led by his uncle
Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, as Lord Protector. Somerset and others vied
for advantage, though both he and the Duke of Northumberland, a later Lord
Protector, continued reform of the church. After years of poor health, Edward
VI died in 1553 at age 15. He had chosen his cousin Lady Jane Grey to succeed him,
as a Protestant monarch.
She was quickly
overthrown and beheaded by the supporters of Henry VIII’s eldest daughter, Mary
I (1516-1558), who sat on the throne from 1553 to 1558, years in which she
tried to restore Britain to Roman Catholicism. The conflicts that resulted
caused her to be known as Bloody Mary. She died without children. The crown
next went to her half-sister, Elizabeth I (1533-1603), Henry VIII’s daughter by
Anne Boleyn, who was a Protestant.
After her momentous
long reign until 1603, Elizabeth I also died without issue. She had Mary Stuart (1542-1587), Queen of
Scots, executed in 1587, but Mary’s son, James VI (1566-1625) of Scotland
became the next monarch as James I of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, the first Stuart monarch. James I was also the great grandson of Henry
VII.
Though James I and
his wife, Anne of Denmark, were Protestants, subsequent Stuarts were often
eager to bring Roman Catholics back into favor in one way or another. Once
James I took the throne, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were united but
the two states continued as sovereign until the Acts of Union of 1706-07.
James I had several
sons, the eldest of whom, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, died in 1612 at age
28. Second son, Charles, succeeded to the throne in 1625, and in the same year
married Henrietta Maria, princess of France and a Roman Catholic. They had nine
children, two of whom reigned as King of England (Charles II and James II).
Three of their grandchildren ruled: William III, Mary II, and Anne, all of whom
were Protestant.
Charles I was
overthrown and beheaded in the English Civil War by the Parliamentarians led by
Oliver Cromwell. After Cromwell’s death,
his supporters lost power, and Charles II was invited back to rule in 1660, the
Restoration. Charles II and his wife, Catherine of Braganza, had no surviving
children, though a number of his illegitimate children were ennobled by the
King.
James II, Charles II’s
brother, succeeded to the throne in 1685. Earlier, as the Duke of York, James
II was first married to Anne Hyde with whom he had two daughters, Mary II and
Anne, raised as Protestants. As his second wife he married Mary of Modena, a
Catholic, in 1673. In 1688, after he was
king, their second child, a son (James Francis Edward), was born.
The powerful nobles
saw the possibility of the crown going to a Roman Catholic, and took matters
into their own hands. They invited Mary, James II’s daughter by his first
marriage, and her husband, William of Orange, both Protestants (and first
cousins), to assume the throne of Great Britain, in what became known as the
Glorious Revolution. The nobles, mostly Whigs, led by the Earl of Sunderland
and joined by many Tories, welcomed the arrival of William III’s army of
15,000. With just a bit of bloodshed,
the issues were settled. James II and his family went into exile in France,
though Jacobite uprisings continued.
Political philosopher
Edmund Burke wrote of the Glorious Revolution, “The Revolution was made to
preserve our ancient indisputable laws and liberties and that ancient
constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty.”
William III and Mary
II 1688-1702 were joint rulers, particularly while William was away at
war. Mary died in 1694 at the age of 32
of smallpox; William III ruled to 1702.
Parliament passed the
Declaration of Rights in 1689, which confirmed the joint monarchy and denied
right of a sovereign to veto acts of Parliament. In 1791 parliament passed the Act of
Settlement which established the Succession following William. After Anne, if she had no issue, the next in
line would be Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and her issue. No Roman Catholic was to be included in the
succession, which remains true today.
At William’s death,
his Protestant sister-in-law, Anne, also a daughter of James II, succeeded to
the throne. She and her husband, Prince George of Denmark, had no children that
survived childhood, despite Anne’s seventeen pregnancies. One son, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester,
(1689-1700) died at age 11. In 1706-07, Scotland and Britain formally merged as
the Kingdom of Great Britain, formalizing the ad hoc arrangement since James I took the throne in 1603. Anne’s
reign was noted for the war of Spanish Succession, and the rise of the two party–system,
Whigs and Tories.
D. Sidelight on the
British Constitution:
The British
Constitution is unwritten but the sum of many agreements including the Magna
Carta of 1215, the Bill of Rights of 1689, and the Acts of Succession. Many other provisions, such as freedom of
speech in Parliamentary debates, the power of Parliament to tax and control the
army (no royal prerogatives, and the monarch’s coronation oath to protect the Protestant
church were part of the Act of Succession.
II. Georgian Britain
1714-1802.
For
pictures associated with this section go to
Part
One, Group B
A. The religious
controversies with the pro-Catholics and the prevalence of the nobles in
managing the State and the Monarchy weakened the idea of absolute monarchy and
the diving right of kings, thus strengthening Parliament. The constitutional
monarchy evolved, and continued to change throughout the next two centuries,
with more and more power going to the Parliament.
B. Wars between
France and Britain continued for almost the entire 18th
Century
and beyond. (colonial wars in N.
America)
1. 1701-1714: War of
Spanish Succession (Queen Anne’s War)
2. 1739-1748: War of
Austrian Succession (War of Jenkin’s
Ear):
3. 1754- 1763: Seven
Years War (French & Indian War)
4. 1775-1783: American Revolutionary War
5.1792-1815: Great French War turning into Napoleonic wars
C. George
I (1660 –1727), at age 54, became
King of Great Britain and Ireland in August 1714. He was also head of the Duchy
and Electorate in Hanover, since 1698. There were more than fifty relatives
closer to James II than the Hanoverians, but all were Catholics.
The succession was not entirely unanimous, favored by the
Whigs who declared the rights of Parliament to determine the succession, but many
Tories preferred sticking to hereditary rights, i.e. the Stuarts. Sophia (1630-1714), Electress of Hanover, and
a granddaughter of James I, died just a few months before she would become
Queen of England on the death of Anne. When her son George I was crowned, the two
hundred years of succession problems and religious controversy had lessened the
powers of the monarch, increased power for the Parliament, and resolved the
religious conflict in favor of the Anglican (Protestant) Church over the
Catholics.
George I was crowned
on September 18, 1714; there was widespread rioting in objection. However, the Georgian Era had begun. George
did not speak much English and spent a great deal of time in Hanover, leaving
British affairs in the hands of a regency council. In 1715, the Whigs won a
majority in Parliament, further empowering many of the leading nobles.
George had two
children, a son and a daughter, with his wife Sophia Dorothea of Celle. The
marriage was later dissolved and she was held in Germany under a sort of house
arrest for the rest of her life.
Sir Robert Walpole
(1676-1745), MP, led the Whigs and consolidated his power, holding both offices
of the Chancellor of the Exchequer and the First Lord of the Treasury by 1715. After
a period out of office, and after the scandals associated with the wild
speculation and collapse of the South Sea Company in 1720-21, known as the
South Sea Bubble, Walpole consolidated his power. As Leader of the House of Commons
and again as Chancellor of the Exchequer and First Lord of the Treasury, he
became, in time, the first Prime Minister, and held the office from about 1721
to 1741, nearly twenty years, the longest tenure for any PM since.
George I died in
Hanover in 1727.
C. George II (1683-1760)
was the only son of George I. The first two Georges had most definitely set a
pattern that continued for several successive monarchies: strong disputes
between fathers and elder sons, usually involving intrigues with political
figures in opposition to the current monarch’s government.
Sir Robert Walpole expected he would be dismissed as Prime Minister but his
friendship with George II’s wife, Caroline of Anspach, and Walpole’s control of
the Parliamentary majority forced George II to retain Walpole, another step
toward lessening the power of the crown.
George was the last British monarch born abroad and also the last to lead
the army into conflict, during the Battle of Dettingen (War of Austrian
Succession) in 1743. He and his eldest
son Frederick (1707-1751), Prince of Wales, disagreed on almost everything.
Frederick died in 1751, leaving his young son, George, only entering his teen
years, as heir apparent.
In 1745, the Jacobites, supporters of the Stuart claims to
the British throne, brought an army to Britain. In the Battle of Culloden, the
Crown’s forces led by the Duke of Cumberland, overcame the supporters of James
Francis Edward Stuart ("The Old Pretender"), led by James's son
Charles Edward Stuart ("The Young Pretender" or "Bonnie Prince
Charlie"). This ended the Jacobite rebellions.
D. George III (1738-1820)
succeeded to the throne in 1760 at the age of 22 and unmarried. He was the
first of the Hanoverians born in England and spoke English from childhood.
George III reigned for sixty years, longest of all English monarchs before him.
The year after his
enthronement, he married Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg. They were a
congenial couple and had fifteen children: George IV (Prince of Wales and
Prince Regent 1811-1820); Frederick, Duke of York; William IV; Edward, Duke of
Kent and father of Victoria; two more sons and nine daughters.
George III is often remembered for his “loss” of the
American colonies in the American War of Independence; but during his reign,
Canadian territory was insured, more Caribbean islands were claimed for
Britain, and trade with far-flung regions enhanced British domination of
commercial trade routes, among other achievements.
The East India Company, first chartered in 1660 by
Elizabeth I, prospered through trade with India, China and elsewhere. By 1757, the Company effectively ruled India
with the cooperation of the British government and the British Army. The West
Indian sugar trade was based on African slave labor which persisted until
1833. The slave trade had been banned in
1807, but slavery itself was not banned until 1833 in the British Empire.
In 1801, the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland merged
into the United Kingdom. Since 1922-27,
it has been known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
In the family tradition, George III and his eldest son
had significant clashes over policy and behavior. The King favored the Tories
while the Prince of Wales hobnobbed with the Whigs.
The first bout of the mental problems which eventually
led to his “temporary” replacement as head of government took place in 1788-89.
Parliament argued over the terms for a regency.
William Pitt (the Younger), (1759 –1806) was
chosen Prime Minister in 1783 at the age of 24. He was self-named an
independent” new Whig”, although he acted much more in concert with the Tories
sometimes and eventually became as “new Tory”.
He worked to modernize the governmental apparatus and raise money to fight
the wars with France. Though he tried to include Catholic Emancipation in the
Acts of Union of 1800, the King, citing he is role as Defender of the Faith,
would not agree.
The Whigs in opposition were led Charles James Fox,
1749-1806, son of Lord Holland. Though notoriously ugly and often scandalously involved
in high-stakes gambling and other bad habits, Fox had a charismatic personality
and the gift of rhetorical eloquence. Like majority of the leading Whigs, he
was in favor of American independence.
When George III
recovered his health in 1789, the nation celebrated. The Whigs and the Prince
of Wales were disappointed, though a few years later, when the Prince became
Regent in 1811, he did not favor the Whigs as much as they had hoped.
E. THE GEORGIAN ERA encompasses the first four Hanoverian Kings
and probably William IV, from 1714 to 1837. The Regency Era, from 1811-20 when
the Prince of Wales ruled as Regent for the Mad King George III was part of the
Georgian Era.
Georgian
society was prosperous in general for the upper classes and gentry, and marked
by significant cultural achievements in literature, architecture, painting, music
and landscaping.
Most of you
will find all of these names – and many more from the early and mid-18th
century – familiar even today:
Composer Georg Frederick Handel 1685-1759
Artist William
Hogarth 1697-1764
Artist and
writer Mrs. Mary Delaney, 1700-1788
Writer Samuel
Johnson 1709-1784
Landscape
Architect Lancelot “Capability” Brown
1716-1783
Actor David
Garrick 1717-1779
Painter Sir
Joshua Reynolds 1723-1792
Explorer
Captain James Cook 1728-1779
Writer Hester
Thrale 1741-1821
Botanist Sir
Joseph Banks, Bt., 1743-1820
Writer Fanny
Burney, Madame d’Arbly, 1754-1840
MP and
Abolitionist William Wilberforce, 1759 -1833
Many more could
be added in every category of achievement during the Georgian Age.
Agricultural
practices improved (crop rotation, animal husbandry, draining and improving
soils) though the enclosure of many lands formerly worked in small plots
contributed to the decline of rural villages.
Roads improved,
facilitating more rapid transportation and communication. Exploration and
scientific inquiry led to all sorts of new knowledge and set the stage for the
Industrial Revolution. Acts of social
reform such as the abolition of the slave trade, educational reform, foundling
hospitals, and improvements in treatment of the poor and underprivileged were
accomplished, though much remained to be done.
Various evangelical movements thrived.
Despite the complications of the many wars, world trade increased and
the development of British India continued.
Great Britain
concentrated more on supporting its Royal Navy than in developing a standing
army. Recruitment of troops was difficult, and promotion in the officer corps
was still based largely on buying commissions and rank, though this practice
declined throughout the Napoleonic Wars.
II. France
1714-1802
For
pictures associated with this section go to
Part
One, Group C
A. Louis XIV, XV, and XVI reigned in France from
1643 to 1789 and lived mainly in the lavish Palace at Versailles, which seems
to epitomize the excesses of the Bourbon Kings in this era.
Louis XIV (1638 –1715), the Sun King, ruled as King of France from 1643, taking the personal
helm in 1661 until his death. At 72 years and 110 days, his reign holds the
record as the longest of any European monarch.
All three Louis believed in the Divine Right of Kings and Absolute Monarchy. Their governments were centralized and they
worked to thwart the privileges of the aristocracy and the church. Their power
and prestige made France the chief power of Europe.
During Louis
XIV's reign, France was the leading European power and fought three major wars:
the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, the War of the Spanish
Succession, and several lesser wars. During his long years on the throne, Louis
XIV promoted the arts, enhanced his palaces, and encouraged colonial
adventures.
His
five-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV (1710-1774) succeeded in 1715. Phillippe, Duke of Orleans, acted as Regent of
France for his great-nephew. By 1743, Louis XV took over the operation of the
government himself, but he was less than successful. Though he and his wife had numerous children,
only one was the long-sought male. Louis XV spent more time with mistresses,
particularly the influential Madame de Pompadour. She intrigued at the Court but, as non-aristocrat,
she had more influence over the arts and tastes of the period than over the
politics.
After a lack of success in
several wars and severe hardships caused by their cost, Louis XV became
unpopular and at his death, was not much mourned by his subjects. In 1774, the French crown again went to a
grandson, the ill-fated Louis XVI (1754-1793).
In 1776 Louis XVI supported the American
colonists who fought for independence from Great Britain. France became an ally and contributed key
leaders, troops, naval vessels, and funds to the Americans.
Eighteenth Century France, like
Great Britain, could boast of many achievements 8ihn philosophy, science, art
and architecture, literature and the theatre.
B. The
French Revolution, the Terror and the Directory
Fighting the wars and spending on
the Court increased Louis XVI’s unpopularity with the people. In 1789, the
storming of the Bastille marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
Volumes
have been written about the causes and consequences of the French Revolution. Initially carried on the wings of noble aims,
it degenerated into squabbling and eventually into the Terror which took the
lives of about 16,000 souls, including, at last in 1794, that of Maximilien de
Robespierre who had sent so many to the guillotine. These five years of chaotic conflicts
provided the climate for the rise to power of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Other
European rulers and governments watched the events in France with alarm. Some
were horrified at the fate of the executed King and Queen. While Liberty, Equality and Fraternity were
admirable goals, the alternating periods of anarchy and tyranny were deeply
threatening to most of Europe.
C. The
French Revolutionary Wars
Historians
have divided the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars into the seven periods
corresponding to the Seven Coalitions among the Great Powers in opposition to
the French from 1792 to 1815.
The
First French Republic fought against Austria and the First Coalition from
1792-97, during which the French were able to take large sections of Italy,
Belgium, and the Rhineland from the Austrians and Prussians. Britain
participated in some battles but was mainly concerned with the coastlines and
Caribbean islands.
The
Second Coalition attempted to reverse those French gains the Britain, Austria,
Russia, and others including the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), Naples and
Portugal. After initial successes,
Russia settled with France and left the others to continue the war. Eventually, Britain and France signed the
Treaty of Amiens in 1802, which lasted only about a year.
D.
Napoleon Bonaparte to 1802
1. Egypt
1798-1799
After
his success in Italy in the War of the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte led
an invasion of Egypt, once ruled by the Ottomans and now governed by the
quarreling Mamluks. His goal as to prevent or harass British trade and
expansion in the Far East and South Asia, gain territory for France, and
establish himself as the eventual ruler of France. On his way to Egypt, his forces captured the
strategic Mediterranean island of Malta.
Napoleon’s
armies took most of Egypt without great difficulty. In the Battle of the Nile in July 1798, only
a few hundred French were killed while Egyptian casualties numbered over
6,000. However, the British fleet under
Admiral Nelson destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of the Nile (Aboukir
Bay), August 1798. The French Army was
stranded in Egypt, but Napoleon continued to consolidate his position and even
led a force into Syria with few successes. Upon his return to Egypt, Napoleon
decided to go home to France, leaving most of his army behind in Egypt. He
landed in France in October 1799.
Meanwhile
in Egypt, the Ottomans aided by British forces, fought the French. In 1801, in
the Battle of Alexandria, the French were defeated and their remaining army
returned to France on British ships. On Malta, the French rulers were
overthrown and Maltese leaders asked to be government by Britain, which
maintained its influence until independence in 1964.
Napoleon
had brought as number of scientists and scholars with his expedition, who had
spent their time studying Egyptian history and culture, uncovering treasures,
and inspiring a European mania for all things Egyptian. The ultimate British victory meant many of
the precious artifacts, such as the Rosetta Stone, were claimed for the British
Museum.
2.
Napoleon Becomes First Consul
Once
Napoleon returned to Paris, he confronted the members of the four-year-old
Directory. Due to skillful manipulation of the news from Egypt in his age of
limited international communication, most of the reports that reached Paris emphasized
Napoleon’s successes and did not mention his defeats. While he was far away,
the French under the Directory had suffered military reversals and actually
lost territory.
In the
Coup of 18 Brumaire (9 November 1799), with the cooperation of disgruntled
officials, his family and allies in the army’s officer corps, Napoleon was able
to force the resignation of the last of the Directors and call for a new
constitution. Both the people and their representatives were tired of chaos and
instability. It seems they were ready
for a new leader, a strongman, and Napoleon was ready for the role. [The Republican calendar, which renamed
months to remove religious and royalist influences, began in 1793. It was
abolished in 1805.]
The Consulate was
established by a new constitution and affirmed by the electorate in February
1800. It took only a few months for Napoleon t consolidate his power over the
other two Consuls and in August, again by referendum, he was confirmed as First
Consul for life.
Napoleon,
despite his increasing taste for total power, was popular. He instituted financial, commercial and social
programs that increased efficiency and justice. Prosperity seemed to return to
Paris along with many privileges enjoyed by the new aristocracy. However, in his
quest for authority, Napoleon had not finished yet with changing the French government,
as we shall see next week.
III.
Elsewhere in Europe
A. Individual
Countries
The Ottoman Empire, ruled from
Constantinople, dominated much of the Middle East and North Africa, extending
into central Europe and Spain at its height. By the 18th century, Ottoman power
was in decline and after World War I, it was carved up into independent states,
with Turkey evolving into a secular nation.
Spain had been the
world’s leading power center in the 16th century and early 17th century, with
vast colonies in South America and possessions throughout Europe. In the mid-17th century, Spain declined,
losing territory to France. Spain participated in war against France in 1793,
making peace in 1795 – but further ‘insults’ were ahead.
The Portuguese
Empire lasted for over 600 years, from Brazil to Africa (Angola, Mozambique) to
India (Goa) to China (Macao). But in the 18th century, like Spain,
there was decline at home.
In the late 18th
century, the ancient nation of Poland was carved up by the Russians, Prussians
and Austrians.
Austria,
once mighty, ruled a huge swath of central and eastern Europe in the name of
the Holy Roman Empire and the House of Hapsburg until the mid-18th
century. Emperor Charles VI died in 1740; he was succeeded by his daughter
Maria Theresa, who ruled from 1740 to her death at age 62 in 1780. Among her
fifteen children was her successor, Francis II, and Marie Antoinette, Queen of
France. As Francis II, the Holy roman Emperor eventually dissolved the HRE
after the Battle of Austerlitz in 1806; from then on, he was known as Francis
I, Emperor of Austria, to 1835.
Prussia, a northern German kingdom from 1701 and thereafter one
of the great powers of Europe, was ruled by Frederick the Great (1712-1786)
beginning in 1740. Frederick became a
great general, admired by many including Bonaparte, for his military
organizational skills and tactical expertise.
Frederick the
Great reorganized the government and reformed the justice system, founded
educational institutions, and promoted arts and culture. His nephew, Frederick
William II (1744-1797), who succeeded him on the throne, was not as strong a
leader. After 1786, Prussia’s army received
less attention and national debts increased.
Frederick William III (1770 –1840)
was King of Prussia from 1797 to 1840. He participated in the Sixth and Seventh
Coalitions against Napoleon
Russia was ruled by Catherine the Great (1729-1796) from 1762 to her death.
She was a strong ruler and presided over Russia’s ‘Golden Age’ marked by
continuing the reforms of Peter the Great (reigned 1682-1725). Catherine encouraged building and expansion,
and encouraged the arts. As a result of several wars, Russia’s borders were
increased into Poland and parts of the Ottoman Empire.
Catherine’s
son, Tsar Paul I (1754-1801) was Emperor of Russia from 1796-1801, when he was
assassinated. Tsar Alexander I (1777-1825) was Emperor of Russia 1801-1825,
taking over after his father’s death. Though he declared he would be a more
liberal reformer, few of his subsequent actions fulfilled this promise.
Alexander
I’s foreign policy was erratic. He joined in the Third Coalition against
France, but after Austerlitz, he allied Russia with France. Never a happy
relationship, it all fell apart. Napoleon’s disastrous invasion of Russia in
1812 brought Alexander I back into the Sixth
and Seventh Coalitions.
B. Why the Coalitions kept failing
From the foregoing brief summary of the various states and rulers of
Europe, it should be clearly evident why they could not cooperate fully.
Each pursued its own aims when their mutual goals diverged.
Those in a state of decline (Ottomans, Spain, Portugal), those growing
weaker (Austria), and those on the rise (Prussia, Russia) had conflicting goals
among themselves, their enmity with France notwithstanding. As we shall see in the next lesson, the Congress
of Vienna had to adjudicate many disputes, which they managed to do, but mainly
because the renewed threat from France and Napoleon gave them no choice.
The position of the United Kingdom was unique. For centuries, Britain’s actions were based
on the principles of the balance of power, by which no one state would be
allowed to have a preponderance of power over the others. Alliances and coalitions were promoted to
prevent dominance by anyone, thus enhancing the national security of all.
Though England and France were at war during a great deal of the 18th
century, Britain played only a limited role in the continental battles, for the
most part relying upon superior naval power to prevent an imbalance of power.
This hesitation in support for various Coalitions did not endear the British to
the other European opponents of France. But that was soon to change too.
IV. . The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
versus France
A. The Peace of Amiens
The Peace of Amiens of 1802 was drawn by representatives
of the two governments in September 1801 and proclaimed on October. Complicated exchanges of prisoners and
colonial possessions, the status of Malta and Egypt, and assorted other clauses
were agreed, but many never went into effect.
War again was declared in May 1803 and lasted until 1814.
However, many citizens of both countries visited the
other in the summer of 1802. Paris
swarmed with the British, it was said.
Over a thousand British citizens were stranded by renewed hostilities
and few were able to return until 1814, including writer Fanny Burney, for
example.
B.
Differences Abound
The differences in the evolution of political culture in
the two nations, separated by a narrow physical channel, could not have been wider.
Though the UK was far from the kind of democracy it has today (imperfect as it
is), absolute monarchy had been replaced with constitutional monarchy in a long,
gradual, and curving path through history.
France, on the other hand, endured absolutism from its kings, followed
by a violent revolution, chaotic governments, foreign intervention, military
adventurism, and a return to autocracy.
Can we draw conclusions from these divergent histories?
Were they on an inevitable collision course?
From the perspective of 200 years, it seems so.
What do you think? Share your thoughts with the rest of
the class if you wish.
Next week: Napoleon’s Europe; Trafalgar; The
Peninsular War; The Duke of Wellington
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